Archaeologists must obtain permission to dig on private or public land. Before they begin digging, they do a surface survey of the area.
Artifacts and features are the two main categories of materials that archaeologists study. Artifacts are transportable objects, such as ceramic sherds or animal bones with cut marks, and are often classified as Antichità Torino that offer insight into past human activities.
What are Archaeologists?
Archaeologists are scientists who study the remains of human life. They do this by examining both artifacts and features, which are the physical evidence of past activities, such as the microscopic shapes left by domesticated maize starch grains or remnants of meals preserved in the plaque that forms on teeth. The types of artifacts and features examined vary, but the goal is always to understand how people used and adapted their surroundings. This allows researchers to gain insights into intangible things, like ancient cultures’ beliefs about personhood and their relationships with the night or their ability to adapt to environmental changes.
The majority of archaeological work is done in the field. Before an excavation begins, archaeologists create a research design that explains the “who, what, where, when, and how” of their project. This plan is usually reviewed by a state or tribal preservation office, and if the archaeologist will be working on Native American lands, it will also be approved by the appropriate tribe.
Once the site is selected and permits have been acquired, the team prepares to excavate. They will remove ground vegetation and record the location of every surface artifact and feature discovered. Then, using a method known as stratigraphy, they will dig in units and follow the natural layering of soil to determine the most likely order that layers were formed. As they uncover and remove artifacts, they record detailed notes and photographs of each discovery. Specially fragile or important items may be sent to a conservator for cleaning and preservation.
Almost all subdisciplines of archaeology have a different method and focus, but most all are rooted in the scientific method. The most general are historical, paleolithic, bioarchaeological, and zooarchaeological, but even within these fields there are numerous subfields. For example, maritime archaeologists work on shipwrecks and shorelines, while forensic archaeology focuses on the bones and remains of murdered victims.
Some archaeologists also work in cultural resource management, where they help to preserve and protect sites that are in danger of being destroyed by construction or development. Other archaeologists focus on a specific type of archaeological site or time period, such as Castle Rock Pueblo or the 19th-century Levi Jordan Plantation. Still others use unique methods, such as digital archaeology or oral history interviews with descendants to learn about the past.
What are Artifacts?
An artifact is anything that can be used to reconstruct the culture of a past people. It can range from a piece of carved stone to a medieval manuscript. In the case of ancient ruins, such items are important to help researchers determine the types of tools and buildings that were utilized by the inhabitants of a civilization. Artifacts can also reveal the activities that went on in everyday life.
The word “artifact” derives from the Latin root arthi, meaning “skill.” It is this skill that allows humans to create artifacts. The origins of artifacts in human history are not completely understood, but it is believed that early humans started by collecting raw materials to use for various purposes. Some of these activities may have involved making art, but most were utilitarian in nature.
A person’s understanding of how a particular artifact was produced and used will influence the way in which it is analyzed by archeologists. For example, lithic analysis, the study of toolstones from prehistoric periods, helps answer questions about how tools were made and the ways in which they were used by analyzing the shapes and marks on the stones.
Other forms of artifacts include ephemera, which are records or documents that have been preserved for long periods of time and are considered to be part of a historical record; data artifacts, such as source code created by software programmers; and design and planning artifacts, such as blueprints, drawings and maps. In addition to these, cultural artifacts are a very important type of artifact to examine.
Artifacts can be classified into two categories: the primary context and the secondary setting. The former refers to a physical environment in which the artifact exists, while the latter is a more specific location within a matrix. The secondary setting is a location that has been altered by transformational processes, while the primary context remains unaffected.
Artifacts preserve a history of the “alterations” that they have undergone, and as such, are useful to mechanists and vitalists alike. By preserving a history of causal chains, they appear to be the cause of their own alterations. However, Somner’s hesitancy in predicting future events using antiquities suggests that these objects may not be the only ones capable of doing so.
What are Features?
A feature is a distinctive part of an object. It can be something as simple as an archaic vase or a piece of a building that once stood in its place. Features are often identified by their stylistic characteristics. Proper identification is critical to later estimations of value for an object. For example, a portrait from antiquity that is thought to be anonymous can have its value increase twenty-five fold when it turns out to be of an ancient emperor.
The MFA has made a commitment to work toward the identification of all objects in its collections. The first steps in this process involve identifying where an object was made and when it was made. This helps to ensure that an object is indeed an antiquity and not a modern forgery. It also plays a role in diminishing the market demand for illicitly excavated and trafficked artifacts. This is why the Museum will only accept archaeological materials that can be traced back to a country of origin prior to 1970 (the year of the UNESCO Convention on the Means for Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export and Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property). The MFA follows these guidelines in keeping with the principles established by the American Alliance of Museums and Association of Art Museum Directors.
What are the Purposes of Archaeology?
Archaeology has three primary purposes: the search for artifacts and features; the study of how people used them; and the preservation of archaeological sites. Each of these goals works in tandem with the overarching goal of managing, conserving and preserving the archaeological record for future generations.
Often, archaeological remains provide the only clues to understanding an ancient community or civilization. Prehistoric cultures did not leave behind written records, so it’s up to archaeologists to examine the artifacts and features that remain in order to understand what their ancestors did, thought, felt, and believed.
Artifacts and features can give archaeologists clues to the daily life of a past culture, including what people ate, how they built homes, what tools they used for farming or hunting, and where people moved across the landscape to obtain the resources needed to survive. Archaeologists also use artifacts to establish a site’s chronology and understand the sequence of events that shaped a society’s history.
In addition, archaeological remains can have a strong emotional impact on the descendants of the people who once lived at a dig site or have a monetary value to collectors. Occasionally, these factors lead to the destruction of archaeological remains. This is known as illegal archaeology, and it has led to the creation of international organizations aimed at combatting this type of activity.
Another purpose of archaeology is to preserve the archaeological record, which includes identifying, surveying and excavating important cultural sites before construction begins. This is called Cultural Resource Management (CRM), and it is the primary focus of most archaeologists today. Any construction project that may destroy an archaeological site requires a CRM survey before work can begin, and archaeologists are trained to conduct these surveys according to established standards.
Archaeologists use a variety of techniques to probe the earth without disturbing it, from satellite imaging to digital surveying. They also use these technologies to explore sites that are impossible or impractical to visit in person, such as the tomb of Genghis Khan in Mongolia. These innovative ways of exploring the past allow archaeologists to study the lives of a culture without ever leaving the comfort of their offices or classrooms.